@Article{Aaron-MorrisonAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBC:2016:StCl20,
author = "Aaron-Morrison, A. P. and Ackerman, S. A. and Adams, N. G. and
Adler, R. F. and Albanil, A. and Alfaro, E. J. and Allan, R. and
Alves, Lincoln Muniz and Amador, J. A. and Andreassen, L. M. and
Arendt, A. and Ar{\'e}valo, J. and Arndt, D. S. and Arzhanova, N.
M. and Aschan, M. M. and Azorin-Molina, C. and Banzon, V. and
Bardin, M. U. and Barichivich, J. and Baringer, M. O. and
Barreira, S. and Baxter, S. and Bazo, J. and Becker, A. and Bedka,
K. M. and Behrenfeld, M. J. and Bell, G. D. and Belmont, M. and
Benedetti, A. and Bernhard, G. and Berrisford, P. and Berry, D. I.
and Bettolli, M. L. and Bhatt, U. S. and Bidegain, M. and Bill, B.
D. and Billheimer, S. and Bissolli, P. and Blake, E. S. and
Blunden, J. and Bosilovich, M. G. and Boucher, O. and Boudet, D.
and Box, J. E. and Boyer, T. and Braathen, G. O. and Bromwich, D.
H. and Brown, R. and Bulygina, O. N. and Burgess, D. and
Calder{\'o}n, B.",
affiliation = "{} and {} and {} and {} and {} and {} and {} and {Instituto
Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)}",
title = "State of the climate in 2015",
journal = "Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society",
year = "2016",
volume = "97",
number = "8",
pages = "S1--S275",
month = "Aug.",
keywords = "Agriculture, Atmospheric temperature, Carbon dioxide, Carbon
monoxide, Digital storage, Drought, Earth atmosphere, Fisheries,
Greenhouse gases, Groundwater, Hurricanes, Nickel, Nitrogen
oxides, Oceanography, Ozone, Ozone layer, Precipitation
(meteorology), Rain, Sea ice, Sea level, Snow, Soil moisture,
Storms, Submarine geophysics, Surface measurement, Surface
properties, Surface waters, Tropics, Water conservation.",
abstract = "In 2015, the dominant greenhouse gases released into Earths
atmospherecarbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxideall continued
to reach new high levels. At Mauna Loa, Hawaii, the annual CO2
concentration increased by a record 3.1 ppm, exceeding 400 ppm for
the first time on record. The 2015 global CO2 average neared this
threshold, at 399.4 ppm. Additionally, one of the strongest El
Niño events since at least 1950 developed in spring 2015 and
continued to evolve through the year. The phenomenon was far
reaching, impacting many regions across the globe and affecting
most aspects of the climate system. Owing to the combination of El
Niño and a long-term upward trend, Earth observed record warmth
for the second consecutive year, with the 2015 annual global
surface temperature surpassing the previous record by more than
0.1°C and exceeding the average for the mid- to late 19th
centurycommonly considered representative of preindustrial
conditionsby more than 1°C for the first time. Above Earths
surface, lower troposphere temperatures were near-record high.
Across land surfaces, record to near-record warmth was reported
across every inhabited continent. Twelve countries, including
Russia and China, reported record high annual temperatures. In
June, one of the most severe heat waves since 1980 affected
Karachi, Pakistan, claiming over 1000 lives. On 27 October,
Vredendal, South Africa, reached 48.4°C, a new global high
temperature record for this month. In the Arctic, the 2015 land
surface temperature was 1.2°C above the 19812010 average, tying
2007 and 2011 for the highest annual temperature and representing
a 2.8°C increase since the record began in 1900. Increasing
temperatures have led to decreasing Arctic sea ice extent and
thickness. On 25 February 2015, the lowest maximum sea ice extent
in the 37-year satellite record was observed, 7% below the
19812010 average. Mean sea surface temperatures across the Arctic
Ocean during August in ice-free regions, representative of Arctic
Ocean summer anomalies, ranged from ~0°C to 8°C above average. As
a consequence of sea ice retreat and warming oceans, vast walrus
herds in the Pacific Arctic are hauling out on land rather than on
sea ice, raising concern about the energetics of females and young
animals. Increasing temperatures in the Barents Sea are linked to
a community-wide shift in fish populations: boreal communities are
now farther north, and long-standing Arctic species have been
almost pushed out of the area. Above average sea surface
temperatures are not confined to the Arctic. Sea surface
temperature for 2015 was record high at the global scale; however,
the North Atlantic southeast of Greenland remained colder than
average and colder than 2014. Global annual ocean heat content and
mean sea level also reached new record highs. The Greenland Ice
Sheet, with the capacity to contribute ~7 m to sea level rise,
experienced melting over more than 50% of its surface for the
first time since the record melt of 2012. Other aspects of the
cryosphere were remarkable. Alpine glacier retreat continued, and
preliminary data indicate that 2015 is the 36th consecutive year
of negative annual mass balance. Across the Northern Hemisphere,
late-spring snow cover extent continued its trend of decline, with
June the second lowest in the 49-year satellite record. Below the
surface, record high temperatures at 20-m depth were measured at
all permafrost observatories on the North Slope of Alaska,
increasing by up to 0.66°C decade1 since 2000. In the Antarctic,
surface pressure and temperatures were lower than the 19812010
average for most of the year, consistent with the primarily
positive southern annular mode, which saw a record high index
value of +4.92 in February. Antarctic sea ice extent and area had
large intra-annual variability, with a shift from record high
levels in May to record low levels in August. Springtime ozone
depletion resulted in one of the largest and most persistent
Antarctic ozone holes observed since the 1990s. Closer to the
equator, 101 named tropical storms were observed in 2015, well
above the 19812010 average of 82. The eastern/central Pacific had
26 named storms, the most since 1992. The western north Pacific
and north and south Indian Ocean basins also saw high activity.
Globally, eight tropical cyclones reached the SaffirSimpson
Category 5 intensity level. Overlaying a general increase in the
hydrologic cycle, the strong El Niño enhanced precipitation
variability around the world. An above-normal rainy season led to
major floods in Paraguay, Bolivia, and southern Brazil. In May,
the United States recorded its all-time wettest month in its
121-year national record. Denmark and Norway reported their second
and third wettest year on record, respectively, but globally soil
moisture was below average, terrestrial groundwater storage was
the lowest in the 14-year record, and areas in severe drought rose
from 8% in 2014 to 14% in 2015. Drought conditions prevailed
across many Caribbean island nations, Colombia, Venezuela, and
northeast Brazil for most of the year. Several South Pacific
countries also experienced drought. Lack of rainfall across
Ethiopia led to its worst drought in decades and affected millions
of people, while prolonged drought in South Africa severely
affected agricultural production. Indian summer monsoon rainfall
was just 86% of average. Extremely dry conditions in Indonesia
resulted in intense and widespread fires during AugustNovember
that produced abundant carbonaceous aerosols, carbon monoxide, and
ozone. Overall, emissions from tropical Asian biomass burning in
2015 were almost three times the 200114 average.",
doi = "10.1175/2016BAMSStateoftheClimate.1",
url = "http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2016BAMSStateoftheClimate.1",
issn = "0003-0007",
language = "en",
targetfile = "aaron_state.pdf",
urlaccessdate = "28 abr. 2024"
}